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APPENDIX
from Women Priests, Arlene Swidler & Leonard
Swidler (eds.), Paulist Press 1977, pp. 338-346.
Republished on our website
with the necessary permissions
The Pontifical Biblical Commission was asked to study the role of women
in the Bible in the course of research being carried out to determine the place
that can be given to women today in the church.
The question for which an answer is especially sought is whether or not
women can be ordained to the priestly ministry (especially as ministers of the
eucharist and as leaders of the Christian community). In making this biblical
inquiry, one must keep in mind the limits of such a study.
1. In general the role of women does not constitute the principal
subject of biblical texts. One has to rely often on information given here and
there. The situation of women in the biblical era was probably more or less
favorable judging from the limited data that we have at our disposal.
2. The question asked touches on the priesthood, the celebrant of the
eucharist and the leader of the local community. This is a way of looking at
things which is somewhat foreign to the Bible.
A) Surely the New Testament speaks of the Christian people as a
priestly people (1 Peter 2, 5.9; Apoc.1, 6; 5, 10). It describes that certain
members of this people accomplish a priestly and sacrificial ministry (1 Peter
2, 5.12; Rom 12, 1; 15, 16; Phil 2, 17). However it never uses the technical
terms hiereus for the Christian ministry. A fortiori it never
places hiereus in relationship with the eucharist.
B) The New Testament says very little on the subject of the ministry of
the eucharist. Luke 22, 19 orders the apostles to celebrate the eucharist in
memory of Jesus (cf. 1 Cor 11, 24). Acts 20, 11 shows also that Paul broke the
bread (see also Acts 27, 35).
C) The pastoral epistles which give us the most detailed picture of the
leaders of the local community (episkopos and prebyteroi), never attribute to
them a eucharistic function.
3. Beyond these difficulties resulting from a study of the biblical data
from the perspective of a later conception of the eucharistic priesthood, it is
necessary to keep in mind that this conception itself is now placed in question
as one can see in the more recent declarations of the magisterium which broaden
the concept of priesthood beyond that of eucharistic ministry.
PART I
WOMAN'S PLACE IN THE FAMILY
(1) "In the Beginning."
In Genesis, the "beginning" serves less to present the beginning of
history than the fundamental plan of God for mankind. In Genesis 1, man and
woman are called together to be the image of God (Gen. 1, 26f ) on equal terms
and in a community of life. It is in common that they receive rule over the
world. Their vocation gives a new meaning to the sexuality that man possesses
as the animals do.
In Gen. 2, man and woman are placed on equal terms: woman is for man a
"helper who is his partner" (2, 18), and by community in love they become "the
two of them one body" (2, 24). This union includes the vocation of the couple
to fruitfulness but it is not reduced to that.
Between this ideal and the historical reality of the human race, sin has
introduced a considerable gap. The couple's existence is wounded in its very
foundations: love is degraded by covetousness and domination (3, 16). The woman
endures pains in her condition as mother which nevertheless put her closely in
contact with the mystery of life. The social degradation of her condition is
also related to this wound, manifested by polygamy (cf. Gen. 4), divorce,
slavery, etc. She is nevertheless the depository of a promise of salvation made
to her descendants.
It is noteworthy that the ideal of Gen. 1 and 2 remained present in the
thought of Israel like a horizon of hope: it is found again explicitly in the
book of Tobias.
(2) The Symbolism of the Sexes in the Old Testament
The Old Testament excluded the sexual symbolism used in Eastern
mythologies, in relation to the fertility cults: there is no sexuality in the
God of Israel. But very early, the biblical tradition borrowed traits from the
family structure to trace pictures of God the Father. Then also it had recourse
to the image of the spouse to work out a very lofty concept of the God of the
covenant.
In correlation with these two fundamental images, the prophets gave
value to the dignity of women by representing the people of God with the help
of feminine symbols of the wife (in relation to God) and of the mother (in
relation to the human partners of the covenant, men and women). These symbols
were used particularly to evoke in advance the eschatological covenant in which
God is to realize his plan in its fullness.
(3) The Teachings of Jesus
Considering the social and cultural milieu in which Jesus lived, his
teaching and behavior with regard to women are striking in their newness. We
leave aside here his behavior (cf. the following reports). Questioned about
divorce by the Pharisees (Mk. 10, 1-12), Jesus moves away from the rabbinic
casuistry that, on the basis of Deut. 24, 1, discriminated between the
respective rights of men and women.
Reminding the Pharisees of the original plan of God (Gen. 1, 27 and 2,
24), he shows his intention of establishing here below a state of things that
realizes the plan fully: the reign of God, inaugurated by his preaching and his
presence, brings with it a full restoration of feminine dignity. But it brings
also a surpassing of the ancient juridical structures in which repudiation
showed the failure of marriage "by reason of the hardness of hearts." It is in
this perspective that the practice of celibacy "for the sake of the kingdom of
God" (Matt. 19, 12), for himself and for those "to whom it is given" (19, 11)
is understood. His attitude toward women should be examined from that point of
departure.
Thus Jesus inaugurates in the framework of the present world the order
of things that constitutes the final horizon of the kingdom of God: that order
will result, in "a new heaven and a new earth," in a state in which the risen
will no longer need to exercise their sexuality (Matt. 21, 31). Consequently,
to represent the joy of the kingdom of heaven, Jesus can properly use the image
of the virgins called to the wedding feast of the bridegroom (Matt. 25,
1-10).
(4) From the Mother of Jesus to the Church
Considering the historical existence of Jesus, son of God sent into the
world (Gal. 4, 4 etc.), one might take a look at his beginnings.
The evangelists, Matthew and especially Luke, have made clear the
irreplaceable role of his mother Mary. The value proper to femininity that the
Old Testament presented are recapitulated in her, so that she accomplishes her
unique role in the plan of God. But in the very accomplishment of this maternal
role, she anticipates the reality of the new covenant of which her son will be
the mediator. In fact she is the first one called to a faith that concerns her
son (Luke 1, 42) and to an obedience in which she "listens to the word of God
and puts it into practice" (Luke 11, 28, cf. 1, 38).
Moreover, the Spirit who brings about in her the conception of Jesus
(Luke 1, 35, Matt. 1, 18) will make a new people spring up in history on the
day of Pentecost (Acts 2). Her historic role is therefore linked to a
resumption of the feminine symbolism used to evoke the new people: from then
on, the church is "our mother" (Gal. 4, 20). At the end of time, it will be the
"spouse of the Lamb" (Apoc. 21). It is by reason of this relationship between
Mary, concrete woman, and the church, symbolic woman, that in Apoc.12 the new
humanity rescued from the power of sin and death can be presented as giving
birth to Christ, her first born (Apoc.12, 4-15), expecting to have as posterity
"those who keep the word of God and have the testimony of Jesus."
5 Woman in the Church
Nuptial symbolism is specifically taken up again by St. Paul to evoke
the mystery of Christ and his church (Eph. 5, 22-33). But it is first of all
the relationship between Christ and the church, his body, which casts light on
the reality forming the basis for Paul's approach.
Despite an institutional framework which implies the submission of women
to their husbands (cf. Eph. 5, 22; Col. 3, 18; 1Pt. 3, 1), Paul reverses the
perspective to emphasize their mutual submission (Eph. 5, 21) and love (5,
25.33) for which Christ's love is the source and model: charity (cf. 1Cor. 13)
becomes the measure of conjugal love. It is through it that the "original
perfection" (that is to say the fullness of the plan of God for the human
couple) can be attained (cf. Eph. 5, 31 citing Gen. 2, 24). That supposes
between man and woman not only an equality of rights and duties explicitly
affirmed (1Cor. 7, 3-4), but also an equality in adoptive sonship (Gal. 3, 28,
2Cor. 6, 18) and in the reception of the Spirit who brings about participation
in the life of the church (cf. Acts 2, 17-18).
Marriage, having thus received its full meaning, thanks to its symbolic
relationship with the mystery of Christ and the church (Eph. 5, 32), can regain
also its indissoluble solidity (1 Cor. 7, 10-12; cf. Luke 16, 18).
At the heart of a sinful world, maternity has a saving value (1 Tim. 2,
15). Outside conjugal life, the church grants a place of honor to consecrated
widowhood (1Tim. 5, 3) and it recognizes in virginity the possible meaning of
eschatological witness (1Cor 7, 25-26) and of a more complete freedom to
consecrate oneself to "the business of the Lord" (1 Cor. 7, 32ff.). Such is the
background against which theological reflection on the place and function of
women in society and in the church takes place.
PART II
THE SOCIAL CONDITION OF WOMAN ACCORDING TO BIBLICAL
REVELATION
I. The Bible, especially the New Testament, teaches very clearly
the equality of man and woman in the spiritual domain (relationships with God)
and in the moral area (relationships with other human beings). But the problem
of the social condition of woman is a sociological problem that must be treated
as such:
1. In terms of the laws of sociology: physical and psychosomatic data of
feminine behavior in an earthly society;
2. In terms of the history of the societies in which the people of God
lived during and after the composition of the Bible;
3. In terms of the laws of the church of Christ, his body, whose members
live an ecclesial life under the direction of a magisterium instituted by
Christ, while belonging to other societies and states.
II. The biblical experience shows that the social condition of
woman has varied, but not in a linear manner as if there were continual
progress. Ancient Egypt experienced a real flourishing of woman before the
existence of Israel. The Israelite woman experienced a certain flourishing
under the monarchy, then her condition became subordinate once more. In the
time of Christ the status of woman appears, in Jewish society, inferior to what
it is in GrecoRoman society where their lack of legal status is in the process
of disappearing and in which "women handle their business themselves"
(Gaius).
In relation to his contemporaries, Christ has a very original attitude
with regard to woman which gives renewed value to her situation.
III. Christian society is established on a basis other than that
of Jewish society. It is founded on the cornerstone of the risen Christ and is
built upon Peter in collegiality with the twelve. According to the witness of
the New Testament, especially the Pauline epistles, women are associated with
the different charismatic ministries (diaconies) of the church (1Cor. 12, 4;
1Tim. 3, 11, cf. 8): prophecy, service, probably even apostolate . . . without,
nevertheless, being of the twelve. They have a place in the liturgy at least as
prophetesses (1Cor. 11, 4). But according to the Pauline corpus (1Cor. 14,
33-35; cf. 1Tim. 2, 6-15) an apostle such as Paul can withdraw the word from
them.
This Christian society lives not only on the government of the twelve
who are called apostles in Luke and elsewhere in the New Testament, but also on
the liturgical sacramental life in which Christ communicates his spirit as high
priest no longer according to Aaron but according to Melchisedech, king and
priest (Heb. 8; cf. Ps. 110).
Sociologically speaking, in Jewish society, therefore for Christians
until the break, the consecrated priesthood of Aaron (Lev. 9) assured an
authentic liturgical and sacrificial life in the temple of stone. But Christ is
the true high priest and the true temple (John 2, 21). He was consecrated and
sent (hagiazein, apostellein) by the Father (Jn. 10, 26), and he
consecrates himself in order to consecrate the apostles in the truth that he
himself is (Jn. 17, 17.19). It is a fundamental characteristic of the society
that is the church in the midst of other societies, that it dispenses eternal
life through its own liturgy.
IV. The problem is to know whether in Christian society ruled by
the apostles - the twelve, Paul, Titus, Timothy - and by their successors
(bishops, presbyters, higoumenes) women can be called to participate in
this liturgical ministry and in the direction of local communities, as the
queens of the Old Testament, especially widows, were called to participate in
the royal functions of anointed kings. In fact in the New Testament no text
formally supports this hypothesis, even though one may note the role of widows
in the pastoral epistles (1Tim. 5) and what Luke says of Anna in the Temple
(latreuein). This study is no longer a matter of sociology, but of the
labors of our third section (condition of woman in cult).
PART III
ECCLESIAL CONDITION OF WOMAN
Old Testament
In the Old Testament, the Yahwist religion was not reserved to men
alone, as is said elsewhere. Women as well as men could have sacrifices
offered, participate in worship. Nevertheless, contrary to the customs of the
contemporary pagan peoples, the worship of the second temple was exclusively
reserved to men of the tribe of Levi (not only the function of priests, but
also that of cantor, potter, etc.).
Moreover, there are women who bore the name of prophetess (Maria,
Deborah, Huldam, Noiada), while not playing the role of the great prophets.
Other women exercised an important function for the salvation of the people of
God at critical moments of this people's history (for example, Judith, Esther)
(cf. section 2).
(Amendment of Father Wambacq:) "In the Old Testament, the Yahwist
religion was not a religion in which women were excluded, as is sometimes held.
Women as well as men could participate in worship. Contrary to the usages of
the contemporary pagan peoples, the official exercise of the temple worship was
reserved to men, in the second temple to those of the tribe of Levi."
THE GOSPELS
In striking contast to the contemporary usages of the Jewish world, we
see Jesus surrounding himself with women who follow him and serve him (Luke 8,
2-3). Mary of Bethany is even described as the examplary disciple "listening to
the word" (Luke 10, 38-42). It is the women who are charged with announcing the
resurrection "to the apostles and to Peter." (Mark 16, 7).
The fourth gospel stresses this role of witness attributed to women: the
Samaritan woman, whose mere conversation with Jesus had astonished the
apostles, goes carrying her witness to Jesus to her fellow citizens. After the
resurrection, the evangelist emphasizes the role of Mary Magdalene whom
tradition will call "the apostle of the apostles."
ACTS AND PAUL
As Christianity spread, women took a notable part. That again
distinguished the new religion sharply from contemporary Judaism.
Some women collaborated in the properly apostolic work. This is shown at
numerous points in the Acts and the epistles. We shall limit ourselves to a few
of them.
In the establishment of local communities, they are not content with
offering their houses for meetings, as Lydia (Acts 16, 14-15), the mother of
Mark (Acts 12, 12), Prisca (Rom. 16, 5), but, according to Phil. 4, 2, for
example, Evodia and Syntyche are explicitly associated with "Clement and the
other collaborators of Paul" in the community. Of the 27 persons thanked or
greeted by Paul in the last chapter of the Epistle to the Romans, nine or
perhaps 10 are women. In the case of several of them, Paul insists on
specifying that they have tired themselves for the community, using a Greek
verb (kopian) most often used for the work of evangelization properly so
called.
The case of Prisca and her husband Aquila whom Paul calls "his
collaborators in Christ" and of whom he says that "to them are indebted not
only himself but all the churches of the Gentiles" (Rom. 16, 3-4), shows us
concretely an example of this "collaboration": their role in the story of
Appollo is well known (Acts 18, 24-28).
Paul mentions explicitly a woman as "deacon" (diaconos) of the
church of Cenchrees, who "was also," he says, "for many Christians and for
himself a protectress" (Rom. 16, 1-2). In the pastoral epistles, the women
indicated after the bishops and the deacons probably had a status of diaconos
(1 Tim. 3, 11). Also notable is the case of Junias or Junio, placed in the rank
of the apostles (Rom. 16, 7), with regard to whom one or another raises the
question of whether it is a man.
PART IV
REPLY TO THE QUESTION ABOUT THE EVENTUAL ORDINATION OF
WOMEN TO THE PRIESTHOOD
(1) The Ministry of Leadership According to Jesus and the Apostolic
Church
In establishing the kingdom of God, Jesus, during his ministry, chose a
group of 12 men who, after the fashion of the 12 patriarchs of the Old
Testament, would be the leaders of the renewed people of God (Mk. 3:14-19);
these men whom he destined to "sit upon twelve thrones judging the twelve
tribes of Israel" (Mt. 19:28) were first sent to "proclaim that the kingdom of
heaven is at hand" (Mt. 10:7).
After his death and resurrection, Christ confided to his apostles the
mission of evangelizing all nations (Mt. 28:19, Mk 16:5). These men would
become his witnesses, beginning at Jerusalem and reaching to the ends of the
earth (Acts 1:8, Lk. 24:47). "As my Father sent me," he told them, "I also send
you" (Jn. 20:21).
Upon leaving the earth to return to his Father, he also delegated to a
group of men whom he had chosen the responsibility to develop the kingdom of
God and the authority to govern the church. The apostolic group thus
established by the Lord appeared thus, by the testimony of the New Testament,
as the basis of a community which has continued the work of Christ, charged to
communicate to humanity the fruits of his salvation.
As a matter of fact, we see in the Acts of the Apostles and the epistles
that the first communities were always directed by men exercising the apostolic
power.
The Acts of the Apostles show that the first Christian community of
Jerusalem knew only one ministry of leadership, which was that of the apostles:
this was the urministerioum from which all the others derived. It seems
that, very early, the Greek community received its own structure, presided over
by the college of seven (Acts 6:5). A little later there was a question for the
Jewish group about a college of presbyters (ibid. 11:30). The church at Antioch
was presided over by a group of "five prophets and teachers" (ibid. 13:1). At
the end of their first missionary journey, Paul and Barnabas installed
presbyters in the newly founded churches (ibid. 14:23).
There were also presbyters at Ephesus (ibid., 20:17), to whom were given
the name of bishop (ibid. 20:28).
The epistles confirm the same picture: There are proistamenoi in
1 Thess. 5:12 (cf. 1Tim. 5:17 "hoi kalos proetotes presbyteroi"), of
Christian presbytery (1Tim. 5:1, 2, 17, 19; Titus 1, 5; James 5, 4; 1Pet. 5:1,
5), of episkopoi, of hegoumenoi (Heb. 13:7, 13, 24. cf. Lk.
22:26).
1Cor. 16:16 recommends "submission" to Christians regarding those of the
"house of Stephanas" who were sent for the service of the saints.
Whatever this last designation may be, (verse 17 speaks of Stephanas,
Fortunatus and Achaikos), all that we can know of those who held a role of
leadership in the communities leads to the conclusion that this role was always
held by men (in conformity with the Jewish custom). (N.B. The
“presbytides” mentioned in Titus 2:3 were elderly women, and
not priestesses.)
The masculine character of the hierarchical order which has structured
the church since its beginning thus seems attested to by scripture in an
undeniable way. Must we conclude that this rule must be valid forever in the
church?
We must however recall that according to the gospels, the Acts and St.
Paul, certain women made a positive collaboration in service to the Christian
communities.
Yet one question still always be asked: What is the normative value
which should be accorded to the practice of the Christian communities of the
first centuries?
(2) The Ministry of Leadership and the Sacramental Economy
One of the essential elements of the church's life is the sacramental
economy which gives the life of Christ to the faithful. The administration of
this economy has been entrusted to the church for which the hierarchy is
responsible.
Thus the question is raised about the relationship between the
sacramental economy and the hierarchy.
In the New Testament the primordial role of the leaders of the
communities seems always to lie in the field of preaching and teaching. These
are the people who have the responsibility of keeping the communities in line
with the faith of the apostles.
No text defines their charge in terms of a special power permitting them
to carry out the eucharistic rite or to reconcile sinners.
But given the relationship between the sacramental economy and the
hierarchy, the administration of the sacraments should not be exercised
independently of this hierarchy. It is therefore within the duties of the
leadership of the community that we must consider the issue of eucharistic and
penitential ministry.
In fact there is no proof that these ministries were entrusted to women
at the time of the New Testament. Two texts (1Cor. 14:33-35 and 1Tim. 2:11-15)
forbid women to speak and to teach in assemblies. However, without mentioning
doubts raised by some about their Pauline authenticity, it is possible that
they refer only to certain concrete situations and abuses. It is possible that
certain other situations call on the church to assign to women the role of
teaching which these two passages deny them and which constitute a function
belonging to the leadership.
Is it possible that certain circumstances can come about which call on
the church to entrust in the same way to certain women some sacramental
ministries?
This has been the case with baptism which, though entrusted to the
apostles (Mt. 28:19 and Mk. 16:15f) can be administered by others as well. We
know that at least later, it will be entrusted also to women.
Is it possible that we will come to this even with the ministry of
eucharist and reconciliation which manifest eminently the service of the
priesthood of Christ carried out by the leaders of the community?
It does not seem that the New Testament by itself alone will permit us
to settle in a clear way and once and for all the problem of the possible
accession of women to the presbyterate.
However, some think that in the scriptures there are sufficient
indications to exclude this possibility, considering that the sacraments of
eucharist and reconciliation have a special link with the person of Christ and
therefore with the male hierarchy, as borne out by the New Testament.
Others, on the contrary, wonder if the church hierarchy, entrusted with
the sacramental economy, would be able to entrust the ministries of eucharist
and reconciliation to women in light of circumstances, without going against
Christ's original intentions.
For the votes of the Commission, see above, p. 25.
PONTIFICAL BIBLICAL COMMISSION'
President: Franjo Cardinal Seper, Prefect of the Sacred Congregation For
the Doctrine of the Faith
Secretary: Msgr. Albert Deschamps, Titular Bishop of Tunis
Members: Rev. Jose Alonso-Diaz, SJ
Rev. Jean-Dominique Barthelemy,
OP
Rev. Pierre Benoit, OP
Rev. Raymond Brown, PSS
Rev. Henri
Cazelles, PSS
Msgr. Alfons Deissler
Rev. Ignace de la Pitterie, SJ
Rev. Jacques Dupont, OSB
Msgr. Savatore Garofalo
Rev. Joachim
Gnilka
Rev. Pierre Grelot
Rev. Alexander Kerrigan, OFM
Rev. Lucien
Legrand, MEP
Rev. Stanislas Lyonnet, SJ
Rev. Carlo Martini, SJ
Rev.
Antonio Moreno Casamitjana
Rev. Ceslas Spicq, OP
Rev. David Stanley, SJ
Rev. Benjamin Wambacq, OPraem
Technical Secretary: Rev. Marino Maccarelli, OSM
1. Annuario Pontificio, 1977, p. 1073.
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